IPSE - Using Interactive Video for Instruction

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by James E. Siantz and Richard Pugh
Office of Education Technology Services, Indiana University

Teaching using distance education technologies brings new meaning to the term advanced organizer. An advanced organizer can be an outline, preview, schedule, agenda, or another preinstructional cue used to promote the retention of verbal material (Heinich, Molenda and Russell 1993). The new meaning is related to how much advanced organization is required. An Indiana University professor who completed a distance education class session, was prompted how do you like teaching in this medium, he replied, if we have learned anything from the research about the conversion of course content to a new instructional medium, it is that more advanced planning and organization is required.

Instructional effectiveness is rooted in how instructors use the technology, not the technology itself (Florini 1989).

Research literature indicates that instructors need different skills when using distance education technology. Instructional techniques instructors use with interactive video are different from techniques used in traditional classes (Carl 1986; Chute, Balthazar, Poston 1988; McCleary and Egan 1989). Preparing faculty to use the technology is therefore an important issue (Gehlauf, Shatz, and Frye, 1991). Although faculty need to understand how to use the technology, more important skills involve personalizing the instruction and incorporating student involvement strategies into the instructional experience (Smith 1991). Faculty must be made aware of the relation between technology and instructional practice, and how to incorporate that knowledge in course planning.

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to provide information and practical suggestions to be used in planning a distance education course or class session. Emphasis is placed on activities to increase student participation and involvement. Instructional methods are described as well as their use in a distance education environment. The implementation of each method in a distance education setting is contrasted with its use in a traditional classroom setting. The sources for these data are Indiana University faculty and technicians experienced in using distance education technology. Three additional practitioner sections follow: suggestions for increasing student interaction, questioning strategies, and strategies for maintaining interest and involvement. The sources for these data are faculty and technicians from other institutions who are also experienced in using distance education technology. As each of these data sources reflect a practitioner's view point, in the first part of the paper a theoretical framework is presented describing the research base for interpreting the practitioner data.

Research and Theoretical Basis

Recent publications focusing on distance education applications highlight the importance of interaction . Hillman reports that the need for interaction is so well documented that it is practically a given (Hillman et al. 1994). Hillman also cites Shale and Garrison (1990) who state that an interaction among teacher, student, and subject content is fundamental in education. Similar themes have been expressed by several authors including Moore (1989), Wagner (1989) and Wagner (1994).

Since distance education now has interactive video and audio features, it is tempting to assume the courses using these technologies will automatically be highly interactive. According to Wagner (1994), The growing `folk' acceptance of a causal relationship between the system interactivity and instructional interaction has placed an unrealistic expectation on interactive technologies to ensure that instructional interactions do occur. Stated from another perspective, the newer technologies allow interaction but do not ensure it.

The idea of interaction promoting learning has an impressive history which can be measured in centuries, covering models from Socratic dialog to those of human information processing. The human information processing model is based in part on research which indicates that an adult can maintain 5 to 9 units of information in short-term memory. Without repetition or some other instructional activity which allows the individual to relate the pieces of information to other personal knowledge the new information is lost in 15 to 30 seconds (Miller 1993). The repetition or instructional activity assists the individual in the encoding process and movement to long-term storage. Aside from the obvious implication for developing class session outlines, 5 to 9 items on a transparency or slide, the human information processing model suggests using a variety of methods and modalities for instruction.

Table 1 Tips for Humanizing Teaching Adapted from Professor's Notebook for Telecourses
Make a master roster and seating char; use it for the first couple sessions. Since it is difficult to see individuals in a group shot, the seating chart may be helpful for students to learn student names of those at the remote site.
Use of names. It is a basic instructor skill, but one that is important at a distance.
Be yourself. It is important to come across the way you do in a face-to-face situation.
Open with an informal roll call. Use it as an occasion to get students from the remote talking to the originating site.
Look at the camera. Gain eye contact with the camera lens, and with the students at your location.

The above suggestions are presented to compensate for the students viewing the instructor on a monitor, and for the instructor viewing students at the remote site on monitors. The basics listed are a prerequisite for student-instructor interaction.

The handbook gave several recommendations concerning instructional message design. The term message refers to a pattern of signs (words and pictures) produced for the purpose of modifying the cognitive, affective, or psycho-motor behavior of one or more persons (Fleming and Levie 1978). It does not imply a particular medium. It was selected because of this last characteristic. There can be several messages in a class session as well as an overall message. Table 2 lists a series of appropriate conventions for the design of a message: preview the message, use variety, repeat and summarize, give time for notes, and provide print backup. The list contains the convention and a brief explanation.

Table 2 Tips for Message Style Adapted from Professor's Notebook for Telecourses
Preview Your Message: Give a preview of what you are going to say in the form of a short, general overview. Giving individuals an idea in advance of how the session will be organized (from general ideas to specific examples, or vice versa) helps them in encoding the information and in recalling it.
Use Variety: Plan for short segments. Variety keeps interest levels high and this leads to more active listening. Keep your program fast-paced, providing short segments of concentrated listening (10-15 minutes) alternated with other activities.
Repeat and Summarize Main Points: Use repetition and summary to help individuals remember important points. Repeat new words, concepts, or phrases at least three times.
Give Enough Time for Students to Take Notes: Allow students enough time for writing notes from document camera or presentation software. Students often feel that everything on the screen needs to be copied. Sometimes you will need to say You will not need to copy this...
Provide Print Backup: Use print materials to reinforce your message - an outline, printed copies of electronic slides, or perhaps a detailed workbook.

Many researchers advise following the learning cycle rule of Tell the audience what you are going to tell them, tell them, and tell them what you told them. Others express this concept in terms of session objectives, or an outline for the session. Open class with the outline displayed. Refer back to it during the class. At the end of class show the outline or agenda and review what was covered. All of these variants are examples of advanced organizers.

Austin in the section entitled use variety mentions planning in 10-15 minute segments. Many authors acknowledge that the attention span is generally 15-20 minutes and instructors should alternate learning activities accordingly (Fleischer 1993). Other authors stretch segments to 20 minutes. Oliver (1994) reviewing the work of several researchers suggested, limiting lectures to 20 minutes, or dividing a lecture into 10 minute units, interspersed with other activities.

The research literature also defines an additional purpose for these other activities. The other major finding from the published research is the need to keep students at the remote site engaged (Smith 1991; Dillon and Walsh 1992; Dillon, Hengst and Zoller 1991). A critical instructor competency is the use of deliberate techniques to encourage interaction (Maloy and Perry 1991).

The following list of methods addresses both variety and student engagement. This list is primarily derived from materials produced by the Indiana University School of Nursing (Billings 1992), and workshop materials developed by the Indiana University Center for Excellence in Education (1994). In Table 3, the methods are presented in alphabetical order.

Table 3 Variety in Instructional Methods
1. Brain Storming	8. Group to Group Discussion	15. Reactor Panel
2. Buzz/Breakout Session	9. Group Work Sessions	16. Role Playing
3 Case Study	10. Guest Speaker	17. Question and Answer
4. Debate	11. Individual Practice Exercises	18. Trigger Video
5. Demonstration	12. Interview	19. Video Clips
6. Discussion	13. Lecture
7. Field Trips	14. Panel Discussion

This list is certainly not exhaustive. The list is provided to prompt an instructor to consider alternative methods, or to assist the instructor in converting existing course methods. While it is highly unlikely, that any one course would require using all of these methods, most courses would feature several of the instructional methods.

Table 4 compares the methods in traditional and distance education classes. The methods are listed in alphabetical order, and implementation issues are addressed. The listing is particularly useful for the instructor who has been teaching a course in the traditional classroom, and now is revising the course for delivery using distance education technologies. For some methods general rules apply. Substitute the document camera, word processor, or presentation software for individual or group writing tasks, activities which would normally require the black board, transparencies or newsprint. Other are more subtle.

Comparing Methods in Traditional and Distance Education Classes Table 4

Method	Traditional Class	Distance Education Class
Brain Storming	Gather a maximum of ideas in the solution of a problem, stimulating creativity on the part of the student Increases class participation.	Set up "ground rules" so that the group understands how to participate. Include rule for participation from all sites. Evaluation of ideas should be a separate step. Can do it across sites, or at each site separately with sharing activity across sites. Recorder can use word processor on computer and route output to monitor, or document camera (use dark felt tipped pen).
Buzz/Breakout Session	When group is too large at an individual site, or when number of topics/tasks require teams. A small group of students work within a determined time period without a leader to answer a question or solve a problem.	Give directions for dividing into groups. If there will be a group with members at both sites. Make arrangement for the other groups to leave the room. Give the group explicit instruction as to the task to be accomplished - "develop one question" or " agree on one disadvantage" - keep instructions clear and simple. Students at different sites may be working on different problems or issues. Have a member of each group report back to class.
Case Study	Students are given real world descriptions of problems with all accompanying data and are directed to solve the problem within a given time period. Tends to bring out strong opinions from the group by revealing problems and issues in a particular area of study. Helps individuals to weigh and test values, separate fact from opinion. Use to develop critical thinking. Use to apply course concepts.	Written case studies should be sent in advance materials so that the individuals can digest the facts and issues involved. If oral case studies are presented, they can add a change of pace - keep these short (5-10 minutes) so that others in the group can assimilate the details. The instructor moderates. Each site reports. A variation is to have students construct their own cases.
Debate	Clarify points/positions - values clarification Develop critical thinking skills. Supports affective domain Uses verbal teaching communication skills.	Plan ahead. An organized and civil argument requires a good moderator. Follow with question-answer period. Have groups develop criteria for judging. Be sure all can hear points, repeat as needed. Allow students to develop criteria for judging. Support visually with document camera, or word processor. Can preassign position to groups.
Demonstration	Show steps of procedure efficiently, shorter time. Show skills. Visual reinforcement.	Use close-ups, or document camera for extreme close-ups. Use computer slide show to outline steps. Speak and demonstrate slowly. Repeat steps as necessary.
Discussion	Generates feeling that the participants are an important part of the course. Provides a change of pace and a chance for others to participate. Can bring in other points of view, experiences; students enjoy a variety of perspectives. Supports adult education principles. Asks thought stimulating questions, develops critical thinking skills.	Repeat/rephrase question while students are preparing a response. Encourage participation from remote site by looking directly into the camera. Invite student at remote site to participate. As open-ended questions. Wait for students to respond. Preassign individuals to give a specific report on some experience they have had. Keep reports brief 5-15 minutes. Alternate presentation sties.
Field Trips	Out of classroom enrichment activities. Taken before class and discussed in class.	A good way to build cohesion early in the term by having students from different sites and the instructor meet each other at some off campus location. As a variation, instructor does one trip with all students, and another with each site.
Group-to-Group Discussion	Gives groups a change of pace by allowing them to be the center of discussion. Permits instructor/ moderator a chance to "step back" and monitor participation.	Ask certain remote sites to be responsible for the interactive discussion, assigning this role the prior session so they will have a chance to determine the questions they wish to ask. Have one location "ask" the question of another sites.
Group Work	Provides opportunity for practical work session for certain content areas. Encourages participation and builds group rapport at remote sites. Critical thinking - opportunity to give feedback.	Mail packet of " lab" materials to individuals or sites - ask individuals to bring some hard-to- mail items. Team building. Activities can be under supervision of remote site leaders. Variety increases inter-activity, increases critical thinking. Group can be at any site or a group can have members from more than one site. If using cross-site group, sound becomes an issue. Send other groups to different rooms.
Guest Speaker	Guest speakers can be a drawing card for a wider audience. Can be a local guest - not a big name one - students, a practitioner. Enriches any class - adding more depth and increasing motivation.	Be certain guest speakers are aware that this is a Distance Education class. Instruct them to adapt their presentation for this medium of instruction. Can be live or pre-recorded. When live be sure to use question and answer. Guest can be connected by phone rather than in classroom. If so have a picture of guest and display on document camera. Prepare guest by sending course materials, and description of the participants. If possible provide students with biographical sketch of guest. Celebrities generally not as skilled in "teaching" their materials as in performing it - moderator may need to lead into the presentation, guide it and summarize it. Have guest visit the classroom, rehearse. If guest is to use a video tape, make copies and distribute to other sites.
Individual or Practice Exercises	Provide students with opportunity to practice skills. Could include labeling, rank ordering, multiple choice or true/false type of activities.	Exercises completed in defined time. Exercises are checked by a designated leader at each site. Instructor leads discussion. It is not necessary for site to be "connected" during the exercise. Use MUTE or terminate call.
Interview	Format is spontaneous, add informality. Variety of voices is a good technique for audio. Encourages participation. Allows for more depth in certain areas -- greater range of opinion.	Moderator should make frequent summaries, clarifications, keep the interview moving and to the point. Try the method with students, having the interviewer at one site, and the interviewee at another. In another variation of student interviews, student form dyads and interview each other on a preselected topic. This is a good technique for exploring values and attitudes. Guest interviewees can be interviewed by instructor, or student(s). In some instances guest is given questions in advance. If using a guest, it can be a prerecorded segment, with the individual live for question-and- answer.
Lecture	Efficient method of giving much factual information in a short period of time. Most likely to be effective if students are highly motivated -- there is decreased interactivity	Lectures come alive" by presenting bits or chunks of material (10-15 minute segments) interspersed with some type of feedback such as question-and-answer. Use with other methods. Strive for getting audience to interact mentally with the material being presented -- give them -- pre-tests to motivate them, use "organizers" to focus on central ideas. Enhance lecture with printed backup materials, graphs, charts and mediated portions such as slides, overheads, video tapes.
Panel Discussion	Helps bring in a wide range of informed opinion Leads to more informality. Variety of voices stimulates attention and interest.	Keep presentation brief 3 - 5 minutes. Allow more time for question-and-answers. Participants should be prepared by previous reading assignments. Four panel members is optimum -- maximum. Think of it as team teaching. Panel members can be at different locations. Panel is moderated by instructor or assigned student. Moderator's summaries are necessary to bring out important points as this type of presentation is not as orderly and systematic as others. Encourage panel to develop visuals.
Reactor Panel	Stimulates audience participation by getting the ball rolling.	Preassign a number of individuals to fill this role -- they can be at different locations or at the same location. Panel can consist of class members or guests. Can be used to encourage participation. Conversely can be used in situations where there is not enough time to have a full class discussion .
Role Playing	Allows group to experience a "true- to-life" situation. Makes discussion more realistic. Allows theory to be translated into meaningful behavior.	Prepare participants If multiple sites are used, have scripts at appropriate sites. Use role playing in groups at local sites or as a prerecorded vignette. Keep role playing segments short so that the class can react. Follow-up role playing with program discussion to bring out important learnings, feelings. Role playing can be used to follow-up a previous assignment such as What would you do in this situation?
Question & Answer	Question-and-answer periods can be built into programs to provide feedback to both speaker and participant. Use to gain attention. Depending upon size and nature of the group, can be informal and spontaneous or can be formal with written questions.	Participants should be encouraged to note questions as the presentation goes along so that they are ready to respond. Respect" for individual's questions is necessary -- provide opportunity through postcards or letters to answer questions from individuals who did not have a chance to participate in the class.
Trigger Video	Very short (about one minute) visual scenarios that prompt student responses. Students working in groups are asked to view the situation, identify problems, a course of action and solutions	Each site requires a copy of the tape. Different sites could view different Triggers, and share cross sites. Groups could view same trigger and respond from assigned theoretical perspectives.
Video Clips	Bring world to your class. Short up to 15 minutes. Reinforce concepts or idea.	Each site requires a copy. Before playing the instructor focuses students attention on key points, and vocabulary. Follow clip with discussion.

Although many of the previous methods can foster interaction and involve students, they usually have to be part of a larger strategic design. The next sections address student interaction, questioning, interest and involvement strategies.

Student Interaction

Student interaction needs to be fostered by the instructor constantly. The School of Education distance education faculty have reported that warm-up activities, the sharing of student work related experiences, and even student-to-student announcements prior to the start of class as being valuable. They have also reported that student presentations are effective, but caution that it is easy to lose the students at one site, if there are more that two presentations in a row from the same site. Maintained student interaction should be a focus of the instructor effort. Winn (1990) and Ostendorf (1989) as described by Oliver (1994) offer several suggestions.

Initiate interaction within the first 20 minutes. If this does not occur, it is easy for students at the remote site(s) to become passive observers rather than active participants.
Pre-determine a block of time for student interaction and advise students in advance when interaction is anticipated. Provide an advanced organizer to enable the student to prepare for the interactive segment.
Integrate on-air interaction with on-site activities or assignments prepared in advance of interaction.
Prime participant for interaction. Invite all to participate. Assign responsibilities to specific students in advance. Other authors refer to Planting Questions.
Motivate interaction with structure silence. If interaction is desired, allow time for it to occur.
Clearly define discussion topics or questions. Assign discussion questions in advance. Use written assignments, case studies, or quizzes as a starting point for a discussion.
Vary the timing of interactive segments.
Encourage student-to-student interaction. Have students at one site answer questions from student at another site.

As this list illustrates "questioning" is one of the key components of interaction.

Questioning Strategies

We all know how to ask questions- Don't we? Several authors provide suggestions on using this basic tool. Austin (1989) recommended using a list of highlight questions which summarize the main ideas for the class session. Use the list to initiate discussion by asking group members to pick out a question they would like to pursue in depth. Another suggestion is to ask a group to be responsible for the answer to a specific question to be presented at the next class session. The following list was prepared by Oliver (1994).

Establish the ground rules for questions during the first class.
Use the distant student's name when asking a question.
Ask a student by name to survey his or her group for question.
Pre-plan instructor questions.
Ask questions that appear in writing on the television screen to enable students to both see and hear the questions.
Pre-determine the cognitive level of a question: recall, comprehension, application, or critical thinking. Rephrase the question at a lower cognitive level, if students do not respond.
Match the questions with the class session objectives.
Repeat the question slowly.
Ask one question at a time. Remember that there is a slight audio delay. Wait for an answer. Endure the silence.

Even if there is a lively question and answer segment, practitioner have indicated that it is difficult to maintain interest and involvement at the remote site. Strategies that address the problem follow.

Strategies for Maintaining Interest and Involvement

Sachs (1993) studied three years of data on the use of compressed video for instruction to the five campuses of his institution. The strategies (Sachs 1992) include: pre-planning and student study guides, use group process techniques, and structures to ensure student feedback.

He stressed the importance of course planning and suggested an extended syllabus or student study guides. This strategy was also recommended by Cyrs and Smith (1991) cited in Wolcott (1994) and Wolcott (1993). He implies that small group activities should be included.

Group process techniques are a major strategy. The small group fishbowl is a commonly used group process approach in which a small group discusses a topic and while others observe. The observers frequently note strengths, weaknesses, points missed, or record information based on another instructor defined criteria. This technique can be used in conjunction with group methods presented in Table 4.

He also specifically mentions the utility of several other group techniques including: forming groups based on interest or perspective, using groups to identify questions or problems with the topic for the class session, and role-playing to highlight course content or student skill development. He suggested a strategy of student or group competition across sites. One specific recommendation was the use of a game show format for a segment of the class period. This has been technique has been effectively used in student presentations at Indiana University.

He advocates students having a formal role in the implementation of the course and strategies to formally collect feedback from students. Students participate in instruction. Students at each site prepare and present specific topics, students at another site have specific roles as reactors or critics. This technique is similar to the reactor panel presented in table 4 and recommended by Billings (1992). For feedback, he suggests regularly scheduled times for debriefing concerns about the course in general, content, assignments or readings. Ask questions at the end of the class session, such as what did you like best, what did you like least, and what would you change. Answers are written by students and given to the instructor. At the next session, the instructor summarizes and if necessary describes corrective action. This technique has been successful and used regularly by several Indiana University distance education faculty.

Conclusions and Future Directions

Instructors need to redesign courses when using distance education technologies. The conversion of instructional material to a new medium requires advance planning. Maintaining the interest and involvement of students at the remote site is particularly problematic. Elements of human information processing models, instructional message design, and teacher performance literature stress the importance of the variety of instructional methods and techniques for maintaining student engagement. The practitioner suggestions, recommendations, and guidelines although based on experiential knowledge, also appear to conform to earlier published literature which is theory based and grounded in research. The practitioner data presented are not entirely prescriptive. The instructor needs to evaluate the merit of the various methodologies in the context of their course.

There is evidence that interaction between the instructor at the point of origin and students at remote locations is a problem in distance education (Dillon and Walsh 1992). The interaction between students and instructor is greater at the origination site than the interaction between the instructor and students at the remote site. At the remote site the interaction is dependent upon the two way video/audio technology (Pugh, Siantz, Silk, and Wise 1993). Instructors must plan activities that involve students at the remote location in order for them to be as involved in class participation as students at the origination site (Smith 1991). There is also evidence that this extra effort tends often to be ignored (Gehlauf, Shatz, and Fry 1991). Therefore, the emerging research question is:

Can a mediated intervention be designed to improve and sustain instructor interaction with students at the remote site in distance education instruction?

The authors have undertaken a new research effort exploring this problem. The mediated intervention proposed in this study involves (1) selecting classroom episodes from regular classroom instruction, (2) identifying alternate methods for handling the episodes for a distance education class, (3) developing vignettes in VHS format to illustrate these methods for handling the episodes in a distance education setting, and (4) integrating the mediated vignettes into an intervention program for the training of instructors for distance education and assessing the effects of the intervention program. This effort is primarily an explication of Table 4, Comparing Methods in Traditional and Distance Education Classes.

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